The Ancient Persians

Article 3. The Ancient Persians Originally the name “Persians” was given to the people that inhabited the territory about the Gulf of Persia, but the name was later extended to all who belonged to the Kingdom of Cyrus in the 6 century b. c., thus including the peoples of Susiana, Media, Hyrcania, and all the territory between the Gulf of Persia and the Caspian Sea. In the History of Philosophy, however, we understand by the name “Persians” only that ancient people which settled in Persia proper after the diffusion of the Aryans through the East.

Up to the last century only secondary sources were available to the student of Persian philosophy. But in the 19 century some canonical writings of this ancient people were found. These writings are called Zend-Avesta, or simply Avesta. This work, as far as we know it, is divided into the Great Avesta and the Small Avesta. The Great Avesta has three books,— called Vendidad, Yasna, Visparad,—which contain religious teachings, ritual, and doctrine on the origin of things. The Small Avesta is merely a collection of hymns, yet is of great importance for the light it throws upon matters imperfectly expressed in the Great Avesta. Max Mueller’s “The Sacred Books of the East” contains both Avestas (see vols. 4, 31, 33). The author of the Avestas, according to Persian tradition, is the great teacher Zarathustra or Zarates, whose name is better known in the Greek transliteration as Zoroaster. The historicity of this man was once much questioned, but is now commonly admitted. His times, however, are not known. It seems probable that he lived in the 8 or the 7 century b. c. Historians are of the opinion that Zoroaster did not write the whole of the Avestas ; but it is likely that he composed parts of them, or, at least, that he is the originator of the religious system which the Avestas contain. This system is called Maz-deism from the name of its chief divinity, Mazda (Ormazd, Ormuzd).

a) Of God and the Origin of Things.—Ancient inscriptions assure us that the first Persians were monotheists. They had one supreme Deity called Ahura-Mazda, who received the ministrations of inferior spirits, called Bagas. Among the Bagas was Mithras, who received much prominence as a divinity in a later age. In the earliest evidences of Persian religion there is no suggestion of belief in two “supreme” beings, one good and one evil, who wage war upon each other (Religious Dualism). Such belief, however, is part of the Avesta system. In the Avestas we read that a supreme Good Being—the old Ahura-Mazda, whose name is more commonly found in the Greek transliteration as Ormazd or Ormuzd—wages war with a supreme Evil Being called Angra-Mainyu—whom the Greeks called Ahriman. Ormuzd is the cause of all good things ; he is the source of light, the creator of men, the maker of the bright heavenly bodies. Ahriman is the author of all evil, the source of darkness, the creator of disease and death, of evil spirits, of animals unfriendly to man, of noxious plants, and of destructive storms. Ahriman was originally good, but jealousy of Ormuzd made a rebel of him. Between Ahriman and Ormuzd there is ceaseless war. This conflict began béfore the creation of the bodily world. Ormuzd created good spirits; Ahriman created evil spirits to war with these. Eventually, Ormuzd created the material world, and made the first bull, which contained in itself the germs of all earthly life. Ahriman invaded the newly made world, spreading darkness and impurity everywhere. He won part of the world for himself, and this he still retains. After a determinate number of centuries Ormuzd will definitely conquer the ancient enemy, and Ahriman will be confined with his hosts in a prison of darkness. Perhaps Mithras will intercede with Ormuzd for Ahriman and his subjects, and the humbled enemy will be forgiven and restored to his pristine goodness.

b) Of Man and Moral Duties.—Man and woman were made most pure by Ormuzd. They were quickly deceived by Ahriman, and led to eat certain forbidden fruits. Thereafter they despised Ormuzd and served Ahriman. This primal sin made humanity impure at its source. Every man is bound to strive after the original perfection, expelling impurity from soul and body. Man’s soul is immortal, and after this life it goes to a place of reward or punishment according to its merits. The just will go to a beautiful mountain where they will dwell in light and enjoy all manner of pleasures. The reprobate will go to a prison of darkness where pains will afflict them. These states, however, are not eternal. At the end of time the souls of men will be reunited with their bodies, and the good will enter into endless happiness. The evil who have suffered sufficiently in their prison will be declared absolved and will join with the good in heaven. Those who are still evil and impure will be tortured for three days, and then a sudden flame will leap from heaven into their midst to purify them perfectly; whereupon they will enter into eternal felicity. In this life each man feels within himself the war of good and evil forces, the counterpart of the struggle waged by Or-muzd and Ahriman. Man must oppose the inner tendency to evil, the urge to sin, and must make himself like Ormuzd by cultivating purity of thought, word, and deed. The most potent means for securing such purity are certain ceremonies, prayers, bodily ablutions, good works, etc., which are prescribed in the Avestas. The same sacred books also mention evil things against which man must be ever upon his guard; these are almost identical with the sins forbidden by the Ten Commandments of God, except that certain offences against chastity are not included among them.

Remarks: Mazdism is the oldest systematized religion which exhibits itself as revealed—for it is claimed that God made known to Zoroaster the account of things which the Avestas contain. This explains the relative perfection of Mazdism as contrasted with the so-called natural religions formed by tradition. Notice that the primitive Persians were monotheists. Notice also that even the dualism of the Avesta system is monotheistic, for Ahriman is not the full equal of Ormuzd, and eventually he will be conquered, and Ormuzd will rule alone. The account of the origin of the world (cosmogony) is more perfectly presented in the Mazdistic religion than in any other except the Hebraic. Direct creation is not, indeed, clearly taught ; but there is no mention of a primordial chaos of water or other material substance out of which the world emerged.

In the Mazdistic account of the origin and nature of man (anthropology) we find something strangely suggesting a survival of the primitive revelation made by God to our first parents.

Greek and Gr eco-Roman Philosophy PRELIMINARY REMARKS In the latter 14 century b. c., a people called Hellenes came from the north and spread through the Grecian Peninsula. This people was divided into four tribes—the Achæans, the Ionians, the Dorians, and the Æolians. The Ionians settled in southern Greece—a region called the Peloponnesus—but were driven thence in the 12 century b. c. by the Dorians. Many of the Ionians went across the Ægean Sea to Asia Minor, where they founded the first and most important of the Greek colonies, later known as Ionia. Colonization progressed rapidly, and by the 7 century b. c. Greece was the whole circle of shores and islands of the Mediterranean Sea with its dependent gulfs and bays. In the motherland, as well as in the great brood of colonies, the government was that of independent city-states, which were kingdoms at first, and then free republics. The Persian wars of the early 5 century b. c. taught the Greeks the value of union and organization, and the states leagued together in federation. This league strengthened the Greeks as a nation, but it led to the jealousies of the great Dorian city-state called Sparta, and the powerful Ionian city-state called Athens. Frequent wars were waged between the two cities. Sparta ultimately triumphed, but died slowly of her wounds, and in the 4 century b. c. Greece was conquered and brought under the rule of the Macedonians. Then came the march of the Roman eagles through all the world, and in the 32